General Management Practices for Cattle

1. Housing:

   • Reasons: Protect from extreme weather, predators, and theft

   • Housing Systems:

     • Loose Housing: Economical, with straw bedding

     • Cubicle Housing: Easy to clean but more expensive

   • Good Housing Characteristics:

     • Free from draughts, proper drainage, good ventilation, waterproof roof, dry bedding

2. Feeding:

   • Main feeds: roughages (e.g., Napier grass, maize stovers)

   • Good quality roughage is essential for milk production

   • Supplement with protein-rich feeds (e.g., desmodium, sweet potato vines)

   • Provide mineral blocks for essential nutrients

3. Parasite and Disease Control:

   • Ectoparasites (external parasites):

     • Fleas: Wingless insects that cause itching

       • Control: Insecticides, removing infected bedding, dusting powders

     • Lice: Blood-sucking parasites causing irritation

       • Control: Suitable acaricides applied twice to eliminate lice and larvae

C) Ticks

Ticks are significant parasites that feed on the blood of cattle, causing a variety of health issues. They are known vectors for several diseases, including East Coast Fever, black quarter, anaplasmosis, and red water, leading to severe consequences for cattle health and productivity.

Life Cycle of Hard Ticks:

• Adult Stage:

  • Adult ticks attach to the host to feed and reproduce.

• Two-Host Ticks:

  • Require two hosts to complete their life cycle.

  • The first moulting stage occurs from larva to nymph on one host, while the second moult from nymph to adult occurs on a different host.

  • Examples: Red-legged tick (Rhipicephalus evertsi) and brown tick (Rhipicephalus bursa).

• Categories of Hard Ticks:

  • One-Host Ticks: Complete their life cycle on a single host, such as the blue tick (Boophilus decoloratus) and the cattle tick (Boophilus microplus).

  • Three-Host Ticks: Require three hosts for their life cycle. Most hard ticks belong to this category.

Control Measures:

• Regular chemical dipping or spraying to eliminate ticks.

• Implementing fencing to restrict animal movement, thus minimizing tick spread.

• Practicing rotational grazing and burning infected pastures.

• Ploughing land to disrupt tick habitats.

D) Tsetse Flies

Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) are notorious for transmitting trypanosomiasis (nagana) and mastitis, leading to stunted growth and decreased production in cattle.

Control Measures:

• Clearing bush areas to reduce tsetse fly habitats.

• Spraying insecticides on infested areas to kill or deter flies.

• Sterilizing male tsetse flies through chemical methods.

• Employing traps with specially treated nets to capture flies.

• Establishing buffer zones near game reserves to prevent the transmission of infections from wildlife to livestock.

II) Endo-parasites

Endo-parasites are internal parasites that can severely impact cattle health. Common types include roundworms, flukes, and tapeworms.

A) Roundworms (Ascaris spp.)

These parasites have long, cylindrical bodies and can cause several health issues, including stunted growth, reduced yields, diarrhea, constipation, and anemia.

Signs and Symptoms:

• Retarded growth.

• Scours.

• Anemia.

• Distended abdomen (pot-belly appearance).

Control Measures:

• Avoid grazing animals on muddy or poorly drained grounds.

• Practice rotational grazing.

• Isolate and treat infected animals promptly.

B) Flukes

Flukes are non-segmented, flatworms that inhabit various organs, most commonly the liver and rumen. They can lead to severe health issues, often resulting in the death of the host.

Signs and Symptoms:

• Digestive disturbances due to bile duct blockage.

• Swollen abdomen.

• Emaciation and recumbency in severe cases.

• Anemia due to liver tissue destruction.

• Oedema in the jaws.

Control Measures:

• Practice controlled grazing to limit exposure.

• Keep cattle away from stagnant water sources.

• Routinely treat animals with antihelminthic drugs.

C) Tapeworms (Taenia spp.)

Tapeworms are found in the intestines of livestock and can affect overall health by absorbing nutrients directly from the host’s food.

Signs and Symptoms:

• Rough coat.

• Digestive disturbances (diarrhea and constipation).

• Pot belly appearance.

• Anemia.

• Oedema.

• Presence of egg segments in feces.

Control Measures:

• Ensure proper cooking of beef to eliminate tapeworms.

• Dispose of human feces responsibly to prevent contamination.

• Treat infected animals with copper sulfate every six weeks.

• Plough pastures to kill tapeworm cysts.

• Conduct thorough meat inspections.